Medieval = medium aevum = middle age.
Dark ages.
From the decline of the Roman Empire, to a 1000 years later.
Ephesians 2:11-22, a good reminder of the humble view of gentile being further from Christ than the commonwealth of Israel.
Elaborate PDF format of the outline at the welcome page.
Lesson 1: Introduction to the Middle Ages
Dark age
Age of faith/piety
1000 year experiment of Christian civilization.
Parts:
500 - 1100AD, Warming up.
1100 - 1200 AD Wondrous century.
1200 - 1500 AD Working out.
Each part subdivided into two:
1. Church and society (political)
2. Paths to God (theological)
476AD Rome Fell
Rome began, Julius Caesar's nephew Octavian defeated Anthony & Cleopatra (last major resistance to his authority) became Augustus (the worthy one) 27 BC, emperor, til death 14 AD.
Augustulus Romulus died in 476, West actually elected a successor emperor. Eastern empire also existed until Turks took Constantinople in 1453.
Charlemagne, King Charles of France and Germany in 800 AD, first Holy Roman Emperor, thus reviving the Western Empire. Eastern Emperor sent his approval. Then West survives til 1806, when Napoleon said "This silly thing is ended". Doesn't amount to much other than stylized title, just as King of England styled as King of England and King of France, even though he never set foot in France.
Holy Roman Empire = neither Holy nor a Roman nor an empire.
Beyond 1806, Czars (from the word Caesar) in Russia insisted that Moscow becomes the 3rd Rome after the fall of Constantinople. Used Byzantine Eagle as sign of their empire. A kind of Roman Empire that survives til 1917.
During WWII, Adolph Hitler took coronation garb of the Holy Roman Emperor from Vienna to Nuremberg to be enshrine the third Reich. Thus, Roman Empire idea til 1945.
The Middle Age: The pursuit of a static (stable and secure) Christian civilization. Common believers do not know much other than baptism and confession and having a priest at deathbed.
Lesson 2: Justinian & Gregory
during these civil convulsions, the integrity of the faith might remain, or at least not entirely perish, the bishops in all quarters attached themselves more to the Roman Pontiff. In this way, not only the dignity, but also the power of the see, exceedingly increased. ~ John Calvin
Emperor Justinian (482-565): 527-565 AD reign. Byzantium. Built the Hagia Sophia in 537. Dealt with Monophysite, not so successfully. Wanted a unified orthodoxy.
Other works:
built the Church of the Apostles in 550, when then became tombs for emperors.
Basilica of St. John (where Apostle John's supposedly buried)
Church in Ravenna (Basilica of San Vitale, with mosaic of Justinian)
Staunchly against heretic/pagan views. Shut down platonic academy in Athens in 529.
Great administrator. Codified Roman Law = Justinian Code.
Frequently in War. Restoring the Roman Empire from the "Barbarians". But locals now see them as foreigners. However, Justinian conquer of Italy made Eastern Roman presence (Byzantine presence) lasted til 8th century.
Marcellinus, historian in Justinian Court (the only one) who declared 476 as the end of the Western Roman Empire.
Justinian became one major point of separation of East & West, since he invaded Italy.
Charlemagne received Justinian's approval to ratify his election to the throne.
Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great, born in 540) marks the point where papacy begins to emerge as an increasingly independent authority in the West.
Papacy (Bishop of Rome) = symbol of continuity in the West
Raised in rich Christian home. Gave away family fortune, joined monastery. Devoted to ascetic ideals that was increasingly popular.
Became bishop of Rome in 590, at age 50, reluctantly, wanted less public life. Died 14 years later in 604.
p.s.: Title of "Pope" not unique to Rome. e.g. The "Pope" of the Coptic Church, Shenouda III just died recently. Although in the West, the title is applied exclusively to the Bishop of Rome.
One of the 4 great doctors of the Church in the West:
1. Jerome: The great translator of the Bible
2. Augustine: The great theologian of salvation
3. Ambrose: The great preacher in Milan
4. Gregory: (for his administrative contribution - according to Godfrey)
Philip Melanchthon: "Gregory was the torch bearer of the new theology that would lead the church astray." From the better theology Augustine had set 150 years earlier.
Augustine clearly taught "We are saved by grace alone" => later many Augustinians: "...saved by grace alone mostly" => Gregory: "We cannot be saved except by grace." At least better than Pelagius' "We can be saved WITHOUT grace."
Gregory: Grace is received in baptism, so all who were baptized got grace. But it must be appropriately used (i.e. constant confession of sin, constant hope for better life, constant use of sacraments) => a theology of struggling life of repentance to hold on to the grace one has.
A lady asked Gregory for revelation of her salvation. He replied "It is not good for you to know that you are saved, better be in doubt, so that you will keep working, struggling..." => unstable grace, requiring cooperation, constant worry.
Lesson 3: Gregory, Missions, & Islam
Gregory: Augustinian doctrine began to be lost. Constant repentance. Doctrine of Purgatory began to develop. "Grace from God becomes merit in us."
"Pastor's main role is preaching", from his book Pastoral Rule.
Continued Christian missions towards North-Western Europe. ie. St. Augustine of Canterbury (capital of Kent) to England. Parts of Europe was pagan or under mainly Arian leadership or Barbarians from East (e.g. Magyars, the Hungarians)
Another challenge: Islam. Spreads quickly. North Africa in 707, Spain 711, France 732. Then stopped and pushed back. Took Constantinople in 1453. Driven from Spain in 1492 (Same time as Columbus' voyage). Threatened Vienna in 1683, last major Muslim attack.
So, Reformers in 16th century confused whether the Pope or Muhammad was the Anti-Christ.
Lesson 4: Paths to God: Theologies
(previous lessons: On church and society)
7th Pope Honorius I declared Monothelitism orthodox, condemned by later local council. East & West rejected Monothelitism.
Filioque:
Began with Nicene Creed, last part "we believe in the Holy Spirit..." which was later added to, thus, Nicene-Constantinopolitan creed (First Council of Constantinople). Then second council of Constantinople added more to it ("proceeded from the Father, ..." original text by Constantinople).
Western church then uses: "from the Father and the Son" on their own. Eastern was not called for it. Problem.
East: The Spirit proceeds from the Father THROUGH the Son.
Divided in 1054, tried to reconcile again, not possible anymore.
Prior to this, popes and patriarchs of East have been excommunicating each other.
Pope Gregory was called the universal/ecumenical priest. He rejected, considered it too proud a title. Considered it a title for the fore-runner of Anti-Christ. However, the East took this title.
Pope Gregory's successors: Servus Servorum Dei (The servant of the servants of God).
Iconoclasm:
Popular piety (use of images) vs. formal theology.
Early churches (prior to the 400s) forbade images of Christ or the Father. This is due to pagan converts who brought in their images. In the 700s, emperors (particularly in Constantinople, e.g. Emperor Leo III and son Constantinople V: declared Eucharist alone is the proper image of Christ) enforced prohibition of images in churches, except for images of cross or sacraments.
Calvinists abhorred images in the church.
This was the historic position of the church, not a power play by the emperors, despite arguments today.
Monks opposed this, apparently they also made a lot of money from painting icons. They said "Constantine V was just another Mohammad"
When Emperor Leo III died, mother of son, Irene took over. All for images. Summoned council in Nicaea to approve images in churches and for private use. Declared proper to kiss, bow, burn incense/candles, say prayers before images. Iconoclasts: Idolatry!
Iconodules: those who serve images
Iconofiles: those who love images
"Veneration is not idolatry"
Under Irene, an iconofile emperor was killed during Turkish & Bulgarian advances against Byzantine Empire. Iconoclasts claimed they were right.
Another young emperor's mother Theodora (second Irene) restored images, prevailed and remain.
Apologist for icons: John of Damascus: "The apostle Luke used images to illustrate his gospel", no evidence.
Decrees of Nicaea sent west to Charlemagne's people, rejected.
Irony: West actually went further than the East by approving statues. But unlike the West, the East made icons necessary for holy presence.
Causes of the Great Schism of 1054: power struggles between Bishop of Rome vs. Patriarchs of Constantinople, filioque, icons.
Lesson 5: Church Power and Dissent
The 12th Century
WEST:
Charlemagne didn't like being crowned in 800AD by Pope due to seeing as less powerful than the pope.
"The Donation of Constantine" - Constantine supposedly gave half of the empire to the pope. Turns out that this document is forged in Constantine's name around 750.
Otto the Great crowned in 962. Made clear he was not crowned by the pope. Removed the pope.
EAST:
Caesaropapism: Caesar is pope. So no problem between state and religion.
In the West, state and church conflicts => Investiture Controversy: Invested signs and symbols given to the clergies showing the authority of noblemen approval.
Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), very devoted, didn't like this investiture. We receive authority only from God, not noblemen.
Gregory tried to enforce papacy upon secular world, faced resistance from William the Conqueror of England, King Phillip I of France, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV from Germany.
1077, Henry was growing less powerful but he outsmarted the pope, temporarily resolve tension by going to Canossa to make confession before Gregory, who must absolve all supplants by their theology. It's not unlike that Henry was truly sorry at all.
3 years later, tension started again, Gregory was deposed, died in exile.
Compromise to the Investiture Controversy was giving apparent authority to the church. Although it wasn't clear who sits on top. Clergies must beholden their properties to noblemen.
1166, tension again with King Henry II of England. Archbishop of Canterbury died. Henry appointed buddy Thomas Becket to be the Archbishop. Becket wasn't a priest, so had to be ordained (had to be ordained a priest, then ordained a bishop, then ordained an archbishop). But Becket seems very devoted to church authority, making Henry livid: "Will no one rid me of this troublesome priest?" 1170, Henry's knights rode to Canterbury and murdered Becket in Canterbury Cathedral. Henry was forced to do public penance by getting flogged by the bishops. No problem for Henry. Becket's bones became a shrine in the cathedral, until the reformation, torn down by protestants. Canonized as "St. Thomas Becket".
Looking at corruption in the church at the time, monasticism became a way for devote Christians. Join the monastery, leave the world behind. But the problem is, the monasteries attracted so much gifts over the years and become rich as well, making life of monks very easy and corrupt. Then new monastic movements arises to fix things. So we have a whole series of reformations.
Mainly voices against moral corruption were heard. Not against doctrinal problem with the church. One movement, Carthari (means "pure" in Greek) or Albigensians (named after a small village in France), rejected the church wealth, corruptions and even sacraments), being dualistic like the gnostics: Spirit is good, matter is bad. Persecuted later as heretics.
Other less heterodox momvent: Peter Waldo's Waldensians: simple life studying the Bible. Rejected by the Church, accused of subverting authority of the church. Driven to Northern Italy, later joined the Reformation movement.
Lesson 6: The Crusades
The crusade began with devotion, not greed nor the need to obtain forgiveness, which were instituted later. This devotion is in the form of apocalyptic belief, that the world is going to end. The concept is influenced by the venerable Bede in the 700s, who started the concept of A.D. & B.C.
Before 1100 AD, Christian pilgrimage became very popular. Despite its truth, it was claimed in Europe that Muslims were making Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem difficult.
Council of Clermont in 1095, Pope Urban II urged Christians to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim rule. Crusade happens to the Europeans in the "Far East".
But the sudden zeal for the crusade was a mystery.
A word adopted a couple of centuries later, "Crusade" = the way of the cross (French): sacrificing themselves for eschatological purpose.
841 AD, St. Peter in Rome sacked by Muslims. Didn't seem like the reason for the Crusade (not for revenge).
First crusade: 100,000 Europeans headed east for the crusade. They succeeded (entered Jerusalem in 1099 July 15) as there were great internal dissent in the Muslim world. Streets were violent with blood as people were slaughtered by the crusaders. Jews and even Christians in Jerusalem were also slaughtered by the crusaders. More violently than Muslims' capture of Jerusalem in the 600s.
In the 200s, Jews rebelled against Rome. Jews were defeated and forced out of Jerusalem, which was then renamed after a Roman goddess "Aelia Capitolina". Jews not allowed back until Constantine who built the Holy Sepulchre and founded a Christian city, until 638 when it fell to the Muslims. The crusaders named Godfrey de Bouillon king of Jerusalem. Godfrey was too pious for the title and accepted only as the "Baron of the Holy Sepulchre.
1187 AD, Muslims recaptured Jerusalem. 5 Major crusades to recapture the city in history.
Some major crusade to note: 3rd Crusade, 1189AD, right after the fall of Jerusalem, led by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa from the Holy Roman Empire, King Philip Augustus from France, and Richard the Lionheart of England, against Saladin. It was in this context of this crusade that the story of Robin Hood came from: King Richard was away in the crusade, while wicked Prince John oppressed the poor (probably based but not entirely on the true story). The 3rd crusade was a failure.
1200 AD, 4th crusade. Navy sailed from Venice, attacked coast of Jerusalem, recaptured Jerusalem. The Venetians seemed to be in it more for the money (shipping large armies is good money making), not the zeal. Also, there was a great political opportunity: City of Constantinople (capital of Eastern Empire) fought over succession of the throne. Venice support the emperor, but the emperor couldn't deliver his promise for the Venetians to make money so that the crusaders could cross through Constantinople. The Crusaders therefore also sacked Constantinople the way they sacked Jerusalem. So today, to see great treasures of Constantinople, one goes to Venice (St. Mark's Basilica/St. Marco's church in central Piazza - which had every pillars stolen from Constantinople - 4 bronze horse statues took by Constantine from Rome to Constantinople which then stolen by Venetians back to Venice - more, etc.). This resulted in the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople for about 60 years, an offence the Eastern Church never forgives the Western Church for, due to the presence of a Latin bishop of Constantinople.
5th crusade: King Frederick recaptured Jerusalem for about 15 years by negotiation. Last time the West could hold Jerusalem. However, the ideal of crusade continued and attempted to recapture Jerusalem again in the 15th to 16th century.
The crusades were a battle of culture rather than just religion.
Lesson 7: Innocent III
Reigned 1198 to 1216
Became most powerful pope. Without ever being a priest to begin with. Have major problem with King John of England (Robin Hood era), subsequently placed England under interdict (excommunicated: eternal life of the citizens in jeopardy) until the king was forced to submit and signed the Magna Carta(Constitution of government, less power for the Monarch) in 1215.
1215 is also the year of the 4th Lateran Council by the pope. Chief purpose: officially define transubstantiation (Applying Aristotelian idea of Substance and Accident). Though it is not a new controversy, prior to that: Ratramnus (protestant side) vs. Radbertus.
Godfrey: There wasn't such a thing as "The Roman Catholic Church" until the 12th century. And its belated doctrines were not properly defined until the 16th century in the Council of Trent. So Roman Catholicism is newer than Protestantism in a certain sense. The Church had gotten along without the notions of transubstantiation, etc.
12th century marks the The emerging Gothic architectural style cathedrals intended to evoke a sense of transcendence, reverence, and awe.
Lesson 8: Monasticism & Scholasticism
Recalling the 4th Lateran Council (1215), primary purpose:
1. Order all to receive communion at least once a year during Easter. (Some saw it too mysterious to take and only observe it)
2. Control the proliferation of Monasteries, which had gotten rich by praying for the laity)
3. Establishment of the inquisition.
Great monastic orders:
Benedictine => Cluny => Benard Clairvaux (In Dante’s Paradisio, Bernard of Clairvaux serves as the pilgrim’s guide through heaven)
Monasteries were secluded.
Then came the Mendicant/friars (monks who preach/teach outdoor instead of being secluded), they are also depend more on alms of the people whom they preach/teach:
1. Francis of Assisi, Italian (Franciscans):
Prayers > Study. Poverty as an end.
Legendary miracle: stigmata upon Francis. First case of stigmata.
Died 1226 => canonized 1228 (only 2 years after death)
2. Dominic de Guzman, Spaniard (Dominicans):
Cold and more ruthless. Stresses education. More committed to study, apologetics. Poverty as the means to an end. Established the "Order of Praedicatorum (preachers)" = OP => Dominican title.
Legendary miracle: Mary appeared and showed Dominic the rosary concept.
Rosary: to count prayers (to Mary and God). 10 smaller beads to recite "Hail Mary" 10 times. Then, larger bead for the Lord's Prayer = "Our Father".
Died 1221 => canonized 1234 (much longer time)
Papacy rule:
The pope attempted to have more power over bishops and monks.
Most monks were not ordained which is required in order to administer sacraments.
Later most are ordained.
Competition between Franciscans and Dominicans, between ordained and otherwise.
Bishops were elected locally (by congregants in ancient churches, then by clergy), then the popes got involved.
Monks were more dependent than the bishops on the pope.
The education power from monasticism (mainly Dominicans?) => Scholasticism = Theology in Schools = more technical theology => good for communication, stereotyped as bad due to irrelevance/impracticality.
Scholasticism evolved from Platonism to Aristotelianism (as seen in the 4th Lateran Council on Aristotelian transubstantiation)
Mockery of Scholasticism: "How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?" But on the importance of it: Was there any physicality for angels? if so, they occupy space => our Souls are spiritual, relate to Angels' spirituality => heavy discussion in the Middle Ages.
Lesson 9 Theologians
Bishop of England (Canterbury) Anselm (1033-1109): ...I believe in order to understand.
Two Major Works of Anselm:
1. Proslogium: A priori Ontological argument: To faith by reasoning may be possible?
2. Cur Deus Homo (Why God Man? / Why the God-Man / Why God became Man):
Sin = Debt => Man owes the debt but couldn't pay it; God could pay the debt but didn't owe it.
Thus, only the God-Man could both owe the debt and pay it.
This is necessary and is the only way.
Eastern Church always focuses on Trinity & Christology (Being of God & Being of Jesus)
Western Church, since Augustine, focuses on Soteriology.
So, the moment of redemption in the East = incarnation = God & Man united; in the West = Crucifixion, when penalty for man's sin is paid.
Abelard (1079-1142)
Godfrey: Abelard was a "fore-runner of the reformation"
Work:
Sic et Non: (Thus/yes and no). Latin has no word for 'yes'.
Theologians were never saying the same things (e.g. the Lord's Supper, Images, etc.) No universal voices.
vs. Vincent of Lerins: Binding tradition is what the church has always said everywhere and everyone has said it.
Abelard vs. Anselm on Atonement:
Abelard: No necessary debt to be paid. God became man & the crucifixion are only to show God's love to us.
Bernard: How loving was God to take his own son and crucify him to show that he's loving?
Peter Lombard (informative theologian), Master of the Sentences:
Anselm (creative theologian)
Abelard (speculative theologian)
Work:
The 4 Books of the Sentences (Libri Quattuor Sententiarum):
Gathering opinions of the church, like Abelard, but in an orthodox manner.
80% from Augustine.
Became systematic theology textbook for the rest of the Middle Ages.
Students wrote theological works in dialogue with Lombard.
Lombard on Augustinian side but seems waffling on predestination. However, he was the one who came up with: Sufficient for all, but efficient only for the elects.
Lesson 10: Popes & Councils
Furthermore, we declare, we proclaim, we define that it is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff" ~ Pope Boniface VIII (1230-1303)
Giles of Rome, archbishop of Bouges ridiculed: The pope is the lord over all then.
Decree Sacrosancta of the Council of Constance: this council's authority is immediately from Christ, not even the pope can be in the way.
Degree Frequens of the Council of Constance: councils are good for healthy growth of the church.
Prominent claims of superiority of the pope: Innocent III, Boniface VIII.
Boniface VIII claimed Unam Sanctam (that he was the one holy church).
This is the result of another struggle between pope & king.
Sometimes emperor deposes a pope and appoints another pope, hence two popes.
Internally discussed by canon lawyers (absolute monarchy vs. limited monarchy of pope debates).
1309: Pope Clement V (frenchman), hated Rome, moved papacy to Avignon in France => "Babylonian Captivity of the Church", pope gone for about 70 years (1309-1377), papacy in Avignon.
1377: Pope Gragory XI moved back to Rome and died.
1378: French Cardinals didn't like the new pope and elected their own frenchman as pope and moved back to Avignon. Hence, 2 popes. Europe chose either sides. Excommunicated each other => All excommunicated => confusion.
1409: Solution by ecumenical council, in Pisa. "Via concessionis" way of resignation: both popes to resign and elect new pope. Both popes refused. Council deposed both and elected 3 pope. Now, we have 3 popes, with the addition of the Pisan pope. Who has absolute monarch here? Later reflected in the authority in European civil politics: e.g. English monarch vs. parliament => civil war => beheaded the king.
Council of Constance (1414-1418): The one that burned John Hus. Memorial: Hussenstein, the stone on which Hus was martyred, in Konstanz.
Via Conciliae: The way of the council: Ultimate authority is the council => haec sancta / sacrosancta in 1417 declaration: Council's authority directly from Christ.
Then, also in 1417: Frequens decree: How frequency should council meet? => about every 10 years the pope should call for Council's help.
This becomes the conciliarism movement.
Council then deposed all 3 popes, elected a new pope. Quite successful in Europe.
1431-1449, Council of Basel way up North near Swiss border, split up into two when the pope ordered the council to move closer to be under the pope's supervision in Rome. One half move to Italy, the other half of the council remained in Basel and became more radical, electing a new pope. Causing chaos in Europe, thus ending Conciliarism. The new pope didn't get enough support, papacy in Rome regained control, even gotten some important things done, such as reuniting the Eastern Church, for a short time. Constantinople was in struggling with the Turks, needed Western support desperately.
Council of Florence: First time officially declared 7 sacraments, though Lombard talked about the 7 sacraments before.
Pope now has authority over the councils. Decrees would have binding authority only if the pope approved them. Even made any appeal to future council regarding present papal decision a heresy.
1520s: Luther: "I appeal from the pope to a future council", attempt to revive conciliarism in order to limit papal power. Didn't work, church split in two.
Thus, distinct elements established by papal authority in the Roman Catholic Church are relatively recent movement, not of ancient time.
Lesson 11 Great Scholastics
Faith - Reason - Revelation - Grace - Free Will
1250-1350 Creative theologians. Thanks to Aristotle. Universities began. Out of Monasteries.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274, Italy), Realism. Wealthy family. Angelic Doctor. Big guy = "Dumb Ox" by fellow students.
Wanted theology to be more worldly, via Aristotle.
Summa Contra Gentiles - Importance: Creation vs. Salvation only. Grace perfects nature, not destroys.
Aquinas: Even Adam needed Grace prior to fall - controversial in Reformation, which rejected such notion?
Mind of God.
Summa Theologica best work.
Thomism - Revival in Roman Catholics in 1600s, more helpful guide to refute Protestants. Revival again in 19th & 20th centuries.
Augustinian.
Medieval Augustinian Predestination: We don't know who's elect, so work as hard and be as holy as you can.
Calvinist Predestination: Comfort in Predestination. God's love and care.
Justified by faith FORMED BY LOVE - problem with reformation.
Faith (just in the head) is made alive by love. Love is where the action is, not faith.
Thus, ROC today would say "I believe what the Church believe", not knowing much, nor relating much.
After Thomas, Nominalism. More in the Will of God than Mind of God.
Dun Scotus => William of Ockham
Freedom of God => What could God have done? Could God be incarnated as a rock for our salvation?
=> Debunk natural theology = Cannot reason to God.
Ockham, more Pelagian direction "The freedom of God was to give men freedom"
Lesson 12: Mysticism and the Renaissance
Starting with Aquinas who at 45-46 (died at 49), experienced mystical experience at Mass: "I can write no more, I have seen things which make all my writings like straw."
Direct personal experience with God - fellowship of the soul with God.
Mainly those in monasteries, looking for mystical connection with God - Underneath senses, underneath reason/will: Synteresis, which lies deep within us, connects us with God. (My note: Same as Atman?)
Emptying oneself to be open to God.
Dionysius the Areopagite: an Athenian whom Paul met. Works allegedly written by him (Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite), not real, forged. But they were viewed importantly in the middle ages: Pathway of gradually purging away sensations, distractions, limits, etc. (Sounds like Buddhism?) Attracted many theologians then.
German Mystic Meister Eckhart - contemporary of Ockham. Lost in the divine, part of the divine. Pantheistic tendency: God is everything, reconnection with God.
PBS' Wayne Dyer - Modern version of Eckhart, without Christian version.
Mysticism Pros & Cons:
Pros: Promoting spirituality, piety.
Cons: pantheistic direction tendency (though not always)
"Theologia Germanica" - influenced Luther. Not entirely a bad thing.
The Renaissance:
Adfantes: to the fountains - to the sources.
Ancient thoughts better than medieval thoughts.
Compare Aquinas (wooden Latin) & Cicero (beautiful, powerful style).
Petrarch (Italian Renaissance thinker): sharply attacked by Scholarstics (medieval). Work: "On His Own Ignorance and that of Many Others" retaliated against Scholarstics.
Progressed from Latin world to ancient Greek world.
1453: Constantinople fell to the Turks. Greek scholars brought Greek books to Italy and the Western world. Wow Plato, Wow Damaskinos, etc.
By end of 15th century, an educated man is one that knows 3 languages (Latin, Greek, Hebrew). A good preparation for the Reformation. This and the printing press were the providence of God. Even nobles could read back then...times were changing.
1930 in Oxford, speech could be delivered in Latin and understood by major scholars.
Lorenzo Valla, Italy, 15th Century, proved that the "Donation of Constantine" that was supposedly claiming to have given the Western Empire the pope by the Emperor Constantine, was a forgery, a 7th century Latin masking as 4th Century Latin. Foundation of the pope's claim to the authority in the West then was a forgery.
Desiderius Erasmus, Northern Renaissance scholar. Famously debated Luther. Translated the Bible from Greek into Latin. Never done since Jerome. In Jerome, Jesus says "Do penance", but actually it meant to be "repent". Another Latin by Jerome: "In principio erat Verbum - in the beginning was the Word", Erasmus - ...erat Oratio - oration! Logos wasn't just the word. But Oratio was feminine, so he used ...erat sermo, sermon, instead. Bible began to come alive than never thought before.
Lesson 13: Forerunners of the Reformation
Gospel never stamped out.
Forerunners (critical individuals, unlike Aquinas despite his legitimate doctrine): Wycliffe(1328-1384 died in prison for rejecting transubstantiation), born in Yorkshire, North England.
Radical lines: "Christ is the only head of the Church", "The church is not everybody", "the pope is anti-Christ" (Wycliffe wasn't the first one to said it), "celibacy not to impose on priests", "monks don't need to always stay in monasteries", "Faith is the sum of theology", etc.
King of England just handed the country to the Pope. Wycliffe had problem with it, king loved him for that.
Oxford siding with Wycliffe.
1381, against the 4th Lateran Council, 1215: transubstantiation is recent innovation, not reliable, reject it. Christ is not bodily present, but sacramentally, spiritually and efficiently present. Against teaching of "Ex opere operato - by the doing it is done".
rejected the necessity of oral confession to a priest.
rejected the sacrament of penance.
no absolute need for a pope.
Need translation of the Bible in English.
Wycliffe's followers in England: Lollards.
Early blossom of reformation in England: East Anglia, strong Lollardy - Puritan center.
Declared as heretic at the Council of Constance. His bones were dug up, scattered as ashes.
Did not have fully protestant doctrine of justification, but "We're saved by Christ".
Wycliffe's followers:
John Huss - Czech reformer.
Preached in 1402.
After fellow Bohemian supporters' urging not to go, the Council of Constance promised Huss safety, so he stood trial and condemned by the Council, which said the promises to heretics are not binding. Thus, Huss was murdered in Constance/Konstanz, burned alive in 1416. Now, the stone Hussenstein erected in his memory.
Huss in Czech means goose. Thus, the saying in Germany: Huss laid the egg that Luther hatched.
Another Forerunner,
Staupitz, teacher of Martin Luther, in the Augustinian order. Serious doctrinal break from old Roman Catholicism yet never leave the church. 20 years younger than Luther. Died in 1524. Exempted Luther from monastic vows.
Work: "On Man's eternal predestination" - "God's grace does not make us acceptable to God, God's grace makes God acceptable to us" - revolution in theology. Luther loved paradoxes.