Prof. Nick Pappas
Assistant: Kathryn Wojtkiewicz
Ancient Philosophy Period:
May 28, 585 BCE - Sept. 4, 476 CE (Thales to the fall of the Roman Empire)
Scope of class: From Thales to Aristotle, as per text book: Readings in Ancient Greek Philosophy: From Thales to Aristotle, 4th Ed. by Reeve.
Pre-Socratic
Socrates: works: Apology, Phaedo
Plato: works: Republic, Symposium. School Academy.
Aristotle: Studies everything, e.g. biology. Logic, ethics, politics, physics, metaphysics, etc.
Lots of learning from this course coincide with Ligonier's Philosophy I.
I believe that using a commentary site for works like that of Plato's is rather convenient.
For Aristotle's works/etc..
The Milesians (materialists)
One famous Christian pre-socratic source, Clement. Usually by criticizing.
Nature: Matter. Physical Universe. Science?
From Wiki:
Arche = principle, Hyle = matter, eidos = form
Psyche = soul
Arche originally means to rule, but is taken here to mean the origin/principle.
Some student wanted to show the prof. that Thales had his own "arche" prior to Anaximander. But Thales' arche IS water!
"Things pay the penalty for their injustice."
Anaximenes - air. (Rarefaction vs. condensation: the transformation of stuff).
Milesian Legacy
Prof: "If change is real, then nothing can be known about natural objects"
Similar to Empedocles.
09/03/2015
Heraclitus (weeping philosopher):
"Change is real, nothing can be known about natural objects".
Logos = speech, theory, word, argument, story, reason, thought.
obscure, Heraclitus loves double meaning: e.g.
pg. 31, Although this logos holds (,) always (,) humans ... [comma either before or after "always", makes two meanings]
Flux: For every object o, and every property F, such that o is F, there was a time, or there will be a time, when o is not F.
Monism: all things are one. (Pre-socratic)
Heraclitus: Unity of Opposites
For every object o, and every property F, such that o is F, there is a sense in which o is not F.
Oppositions clarify experience but also falsify it.
09/17/2015
Pythagoras & Xenophanes
Professor mentioned the 7 sages.
Pythagoras:
Scientist (number, theorem, harmony)
Odd is good; even is bad. Thus, prof. confused.
Introduced a priori.
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Soul
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Holy man: (reincarnation, secret society, dietary restrictions)
All credits went to him. So not certain if he's the one came up with the theorems, etc.
Did not eat beans.
Xenophanes
Most fragments from Christians (Prof. so be careful in interpretation), ie. Clement's quotes.
First to attack religion.
One-ness
Mind over body. Plurality to unity.
09/24/2015
(quotient).
Parmenides (Eleatic philosophers: including Xenophanes, Zeno, Melissus, etc.)
Most quotes of Parmenides we owe to Simplicius.
Modus Tollens on Milesian legacy: "If change is real, then nothing can be known about natural objects"
Thus, Change is not real.
Disjunctive syllogism (A U B, if ~A thus B).
Zeno's Achilles paradox: I see the solution is the denseness of
Zeno's paradoxes to show his teacher (Parmenides's change is not real) makes sense, since our conception of motion is mysterious to us.
Nihil fit ex nihilo
Prof.: You don't know nothing.
09/29/2015
Plato's Apology & Citro
Prof. in old days, Athenians Jury duty is voluntary based. Then Athenian Pericles (greatest democracy leader) introduced the idea of jury pay.
Socrates/Plato, hard to distinguish, due to only Plato's works exist.
Socrates 469-399 BC
Plato 427-346? BC
When Socrates dies at 70, Plato was 28.
Socrates:
Not a teacher in the ordinary sense.
Athens in democracy at the time.
Athenian Navy: hit other ships from the side.
Delian League: Treasury at Delos for unwilling citizens to do battle. When asked for accounting, Pericles said it was spent as needed.
Then, policy of Delian League changed to kill males of cities that do not participate, women turned into slaves.
Athen did most fighting.
More than enough money from other cities. Parthenon built, temples, sculptures, etc.
Two important plays in Athen a year. Athen will pay poor citizen to go watch play.
Athen encourages ally cities for democracy. Most cities don't want to, especially Sparta.
Spartans strong in military, training to eradicate rest of Sparta inhabitants (Helots).
Peloponnesian War (431-404BC):
Sparta vs. Athen
Spartans won.
Spartan created 30 Tyrants (Critias, Charmides, etc).
Spartans (enemies of democracy: Critias, Charmides, Alcibiades son of Pericles) All 3 named are friends of Socrates.
30 Tyrants stayed in power for 9 months until pro-democracy movement came along. Amnesty introduced, 30 Tyrants would step down on condition that no tyrant will be charged. Hence, Plato's Apology has no mention of anti-democracy due to it being illegal from the Amnesty.
Socrates: not for democracy
Unlike Socrates, Thomas Hobbes: Not interested in ruler who knows more. Only appearance matters. (asked one student)
Simon the Shoemaker (first to write of Socrates, before Plato).
We have ALL works of Plato. That means he was so important back then.
10/01/2015
Plato's Apology
Supposedly memorized to be used in court. But we never have record of both sides in court at the same time. These are usually done by speech writers (logographers?).
Prof. mentioned Gorgias (Sophist), old man, 103 yr.
Very special way of talking.
Before about Socrates, Aristophanes' Wasps play shows fun jury activities. Socrates said he would not make it fun like that.
Charges of Socrates:
1. corrupting the youth
2. making neo gods (daimon, daimonion = minor gods, today = demon) & not observing the gods of the city.
Oracle at Delphi (highest authority) & Chaerephon: Leader of pro democracy movement against the 30 tyrants.
3. investigates things below earth and above heavens
4. makes weaker argument stronger
5. anti-democracy - which ended about 5 years earlier.
10/06/2015
Praeteritio mentioned.
On account of Plato being feminist, claimed by the TA to be in the Republic (on women's equality). I can't seem to find the source for his quote:
"I thank God that I was born Greek and not barbarian, free and not slave, male and not female, but above all that I was born in the age of Socrates."
I asked the prof. at one point and his immediate response was (comedically) "where did you hear that". Then he noted a source which I don't recall now and that it was not reliable. However, he admitted that he's not surprised even if it were true.
Euthyphro introduces the Socratic Method: Cross-examinations.
Method:
1. Socratic ignorance
2. reductio ad absurdum (reduce to absurdity)
---getting out of ignorance
3. quest for definition: begins with genus and narrows down by differentia.
4. Socratic induction: by examples
10/08/2015
Euthyphro
On Piety/Holiness, Definition: ("is" of predication/attribution, vs. of identity)
1. What I'm doing now is pious.
2. What is loved by the gods.
(Soc: too broad. Gods argue, therefore they love differently).
3. What is loved by all the gods.
Euthyphro paradox: Do the gods love what is pious because it is pious, or is it pious because they love it.
Euthyphro:
Action vs. condition/state
--------------------------
carrying vs. being carried
leading vs. being led
seeing vs. being seen
Thus, there's no trick. The action is the cause of the condition/state = X is loved by all the gods because all the gods love it; x is pious because all the gods love it.
Plato's dialogues: aporetic (aporia, perplexity). Like Euthyprho ends up without any answer for Socrates.
Substitute Salva Veritate mentioned.
Euthyphro Paradox mentioned.
10/13/2015
Crito
1. A question about Socrates
2. A question of political philosophy: legitimacy of state
3. One more method of presenting philosophy: Argument from analogy, e.g. Morality is like the subject of professional expertise. Soul is like body. The laws are like parents, etc.
10/15/2015
Prof.'s insertion:
Symposium (Plato's greatest literary work).
From Ethics alone to ethics combined with metaphysics:
Forms - implicit in Euthyphro;
explicit in (but not argued for) Phaedo, Symposium, Republic. Argued for in Phaedo, Republic.
Soul immortal - suggested in Apology
as motive force (Psychology) - implied in Crito; presented in Phaedo, argued for in Republic
--------------------
Early Socratic (Socrates takes them down completely):
Euthyphro, Crito, Laches, Charmides, ...
Early-Middle (Socrates does not take them down completely):
Gorgias, Meno, Protagoras
Middle:
Phaedo, Symposium, Republic, Phaedrus
Late:
-Sophist Statesman,
Timaeus, Parmenides, Laws
------------------------
Socrates mentioned his teachers: Prodicus (are we "Satisfied" or "gradified"), Aspasia (2nd. wife of leader Pericles), Diotima.
End of Prof. Insertion.
========================
Prof.:
Phaedo
I. Opening
II. 3 arguments & 3 Refutations
--A. 64c-70c (Cebes)
----1. Death is the separation of a soul from a body
----2. The soul is ethically superior to the body
----3. The soul is epistemically superior to the body
----4. The soul is superior to the body
----5. Death is good for the body.
--B. 70e-77a (Simmias)
--C. 78b-88c (Cebes & Simmias)
III. Interlude - Socrates read Anaxagoras
IV. Final argument
V. Myth
10/20/2015
2nd paper has to do with:
Socrates-> Euthyphro vs. Socrates-> Agathon (in Symposium).
(Paper title - compare and contrast, Focus on Socratic cross examinations)
Though, most of Plato's works are not cross examination.
Prof.'s note on Phaedo:
Death: Separation of soul from body
Soul is superior to body: Ethically, epistemically (with respect to knowledge)
Death is better for soul.
Theory of Forms (Idea)
===============
Form of Beauty: The beautiful itself
Value terms: beautiful, good, just, pious, courageous
Relative terms: Big, Strong, Healthy
3 Properties of Form
SP: Self-Predicating: When there is a form F for some property P, F is P; Individual f things are and are not P. (is & is not: 1. relative to observer, 2. relative to context, 3. at different times, 4. in different aspects of parts) (e.g. Justice itself is just. Any just law is and isn't just.)
U: Unique: For every property P for which there is a form F, there is only one.
NI: Non-identical: A form F of property P is not identical to any individual P thing.
Forms (Parmenides); Things (Heraclitus): the 4 points in Self-Predicating - shown above.
10/22/2015
Socrates' Forms & individual things similar to Plato's Two-World.
The connection of the two:
individual things participate in the forms (Forms present in individual things. Individual things imitate/copies of forms.
Theory of recollection 72e-...(Try Sparknotes)
10/27/2015
Outline of Phaedo:
3 arguments + 3 sets of objections.
Break
Socrates as a young man(96a) - 4th argument - myth - Socrates dies.
1) Some things bear their properties essentially.
2) Everything alive has a soul.
3) Soul is that which always brings life with it (as ice always brings coldness, etc.)
4) Soul is essentially alive.
5) Soul doesn't die.
Aristotle states 3 kinds of souls: Plants, animals, humans.
My Notes:
After listening to Dr. Tong's John series (ep. 85) (Re: Socrates' Death, where Dr. Tong mentioned Crito and such from Phaedo), I looked up the sacrifice to Asclepius (god of medicine). It appears that there are more than one argument for the reason why Socrates entrusted Crito for a cock offering. Tong: Past debt. Our text: death (Socrates') is a cure for the ills of life.
10/29/2015
Plato's Republic V
Argument against knowledge of particulars.
For every individual p thing, there is a way in which the thing is not p.
"A way":
1). at different times
2). compared to different things
3). to different observers
4.) (Symposium 211b) in different parts
1). To know the property P you need to study a p thing.
2). Individual p things are also not p.
3). You can't know beauty, justice, largeness, (missing obscured word - listen to audio), etc. by studying objects of experience.
In Republic, there's a dividing line between Intelligible objects and Visible objects.
Intelligible:
- Understanding: Forms
- Thought: mathematical objects
Visible:
- Belief: things, plants, animals
-
ImaginationImage thinking: images, reflections, shadows(Belief vs Image Thinking: Distinction between greater and lesser realities respectively.)
Higher than Forms (Courage, Justice, etc.), is THE GOOD. The cause of all forms.
11/03/2015
Symposium (drinking party) (Plato - 385-380 BC)
Story:
404BC Framing dialogue.
416BC Agathon's party
415BC Athens invade Sicily (Sicilian expedition - encouraged by Alcibiades, failed)
Agathon is the host of the party.
Theories of eros (romantic, desirous)
political history of Athens
Contrasting Athens before and after Sicilian dilemma.
Story is unlikely to be true due to the chosen characters representing every walks of life.
Structure: frame, dramatic date, who the characters are.
Speakers:
Phaedrus - young, attractive
- Eros & Politics
Pausanias - Classic Athenian gentleman
- good/bad love
Eryximachus - doctor, knows pre-socratic philosophy
- Love is cosmic Force
Aristophanes - comic playwright
- Love = need response to human incompleteness
Agathon - tragic playwright; host
- beauty
Socrates - learned LOVE from Diotima
Alcibiades - uninvited guest
Pausanias: Philosophy, man-boy relations, gymnasium.
11/10/2015
Aristotle's Dialogues are lost.
Symposium:
Socrates on Love/Beauty
Diotima's description (similar to Freudian's "sublimation"):
Beauty itself
the beauty of every kind of knowledge.
the beauty of laws and institutions.
the beauty in all souls
the beauty of all bodies
Beauty of one beautiful body / love of one body.
Comedy: Humans at animal level
Tragedy: Humans at a divine level.
Aristophanes is the biggest opponent to philosophy in Symposium, hence he's given a very memorable speech. Aristophanes: love is completing the halves. Very limited definition of love.
Check out John Malkovich reading allegory of the cave.
Alcibiades' love for Socrates is at Aristophanes' level; while Socrates' love is the form of beauty, self sufficient. Thus, could Alcibiades end up to desiring the public, and got corrupted by "Socrates"?
11/12/2015
World Philosophy Day coming - Nov. 19, by UNESCO
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) Heidegger's "He was born, he philosophied, he died".
Nicknames: The Reader (by Students), Brain (by Plato), The Philosopher (Europians - e.g. Aquinas), Master of those who know (e.g. Dante).
Plato's nickname mentioned.
"The Lagoon" recommended. On Aristotle as a scientist.
The lagoon is the lagoon in the island Lesbos, where Aristotle did biology.
Lyceum shuts down in about 100 years, earlier than Academy. Maybe budget problem.
"The Edges of the Earth" by James Romm, recommended for what geography the ancients knew back then.
Philosophical types, read Paul Zanker's "Images of Socrates".
Funny joke about Academy vs. Lyceum:
Ac: You see students from Lyceum to Academy, but never vice versa.
Ly: Yea, there are full men who becomes castrated men, but not vice versa.
Plato's definitions come at the end; Aristotle's definitions come first.
Aristotle's dialogues are all lost.
Organon: 10 categories of terms.
e.g. Socrates is ______
Sentence can end in 10 categories.
11/17/2015
Syllogism:
My hand (accidentally) is cold
Ice is (essentially) cold
Socrates is human (Said of subject)
Socrates is standing (In the subject)
Substance: ousia = "being", realist.
Essence: ta ti en einai: the what it was to be.
Based on the chart below (from Categories chapter 2), Plato's form demoted to secondary substance.
Aristotle: Substance does not have negation. Does not come in degree.
Non-substance
Substance
Universal
tree, physical obj
Secondary Substance
Non-universal
(Particular)
this patch of color
Fido
11/19/2015
Aristotle: ta physika (from phu-o = to grow)
The things about nature: Philosophy of science
Growth:
1. change
2. change in persisting subject
3. change according to natural laws
*4. change caused by the object that changes
Book II chapter 8:
Against Darwinian evolution.
2 types of Change:
- alteration in persisting subject=primary substance. (e.g.: the making of a musical man)
- "generation & corruption" = coming-to-be & passing-away (e.g.: when a person is born - extreme change)
11/24/2015
Paper 4: Something to do with the definition of Happiness.
Prof. against some blogger named Amberton.
Aristotle's Physics: Book 2
Four Causes/explanations (aitia).
2 Static Causes:
1. Form
2. Matter
====
3. Moving/Efficient cause
4. Final = that for the sake of which; the end; telos.
Aristotle: "tode ti" = a this; some this or other.
Aristotle was a pure teleologist. Proven by Darwin in 1859.
Contrasting Design teleologist (Plato): caused by a conscious mind.
Agnostic cannot be design, but could be pure teleologist.
Prof. believes that Aristotle is close to agnostic.
12/01/2015
Teleology: Natural work processes for [something, goal, purpose, end].
Darwin takes after Malthus.
Aristotle says: Nature is like a doctor doctoring itself.
Aristotle:
1. All things that happen by nature, come to be either always or for the most part. [NATURE is regular]
2. Nothing that happens by chance happens always or for the most part.
3. Things that happen by nature are not the products of chance.
4. Everything that happens, takes place either by chance or for something.
5. (from 3&4) What happens according to nature is for something.
12/03/2015
Ousia = essence
"Give us this day our DAILY (epi ousia) bread"
Aristotle: 3 features of animal:
1. perception
2. desire
3. locomotion
Metaphysics: Book I: Chapter 9
Doubling the explananda
Plato's form & particular things is hard to bridge (recollection, participation, sharing). Aristotle says those relationship Plato gave between forms and particular things are mere metaphor.
===============
De Anima
12/08/2015
Define Aristotle's soul. May be on final.
De Anima: pg. 851,
"...a this..." tode ti
Soul is to the body as Form is to matter.
Form and matter are almost 2 different words of the same thing.
Note the differences:
Body
Natural body
Natural body that is potentially alive (pg. 851)
actuality (energeia)
first actuality
Potentiality/1st actuality/2nd actuality
Example: I could learn to speak French/ I actually speak French/ Je sais...
1st actuality: the state exemplified by having knowledge.
2nd actuality: attending to what one knows
3 kinds of souls:
Plant (carry process of nutrition) -> animal (adds perception, locomotion, desire) -> human (adds reason).